{"data":[{"id":609,"feed_id":{"id":137,"status":"published","date_created":"2024-12-06T04:21:00.000Z","date_updated":"2024-12-06T04:25:14.690Z","promoted":false,"feed_connect":[{"id":116,"collection":"Articles","feed_id":{"id":137,"status":"published","user_created":"0cabeeee-b9f2-4440-ad9c-13e119f68b4c","date_created":"2024-12-06T04:21:00.000Z","user_updated":"0cabeeee-b9f2-4440-ad9c-13e119f68b4c","date_updated":"2024-12-06T04:25:14.690Z","promoted":false,"feed_connect":[116],"feed_tag":[601,602,603,604,605,606,607,608,609,610]},"item":{"id":124,"status":"published","date_created":"2024-12-06T04:21:00.000Z","title":"Largest diversity study of shrooms looks into the evolution of magic mushrooms","content_body":"

Psilocybe fungi, known colloquially as “magic mushrooms,” have held deep significance in Indigenous cultures of Mesoamerica for centuries. They captured the wider world’s attention as a psychedelic staple in the 60s and 70s. Now, these infamous organisms are at the forefront of a mental health revolution. Psilocybin and psilocin, the psychoactive compounds found in nearly all species of Psilocybe, have shown promise as a treatment for conditions including PTSD, depression, and for easing end-of-life care.

To utilize psilocybin as a therapeutic, scientists need an extensive roadmap of the compound’s underlying genetics and evolution, information that doesn’t exist. Our limited knowledge comes from research on just a fraction of the ~165 known species of Psilocybe. Most psilocybin-producing mushrooms haven’t been studied since they were first discovered—until now.

A team of researchers led by the University of Utah and the Natural History Museum of Utah (NHMU) has completed the largest genomic diversity study for the genus Psilocybe. Their genomic analysis of 52 Psilocybe specimens includes 39 species that have never been sequenced.

The authors found that Psilocybe arose much earlier than previously thought—about 65 million years ago, right around when the dinosaur-killing asteroid caused a mass extinction event. They established that psilocybin was first synthesized in mushrooms in the genus Psilocybe, with four to five possible horizontal gene transfers to other mushrooms from 40 up to 9 million years ago.

Their analysis revealed two distinct gene orders within the gene cluster that produces psilocybin. The two gene patterns correspond to an ancient split in the genus, suggesting two independent acquisitions of psilocybin in its evolutionary history. The study is the first to reveal such a strong evolutionary pattern within the gene sequences underpinning the psychoactive proteins synthesis.

“If psilocybin does turn out to be this kind of wonder drug, there’s going to be a need to develop therapeutics to improve its efficacy. What if it already exists in nature?” said Bryn Dentinger, curator of mycology at NHMU and senior author of the study. “There’s a wealth of diversity of these compounds out there. To understand where they are and how they’re made, we need to do this kind of molecular work to use biodiversity to our advantage.”

All the study’s Psilocybe DNA came from specimens in museum collections around the world. Twenty-three of the 52 specimens were “type specimens,” the gold standard designating a species against which all other samples are measured. For example, say you identify a wild mushroom as a certain species of chanterelle—you’re betting that the mushroom you picked is the same as the physical material sitting in a box in a museum. The authors’ molecular work on type species is a major contribution to mycology because it establishes an authoritative foundation for all future work on Psilocybe diversity in taxonomy.

“These type specimens represent hundreds of years of thousands of scientists’ collective effort to document diversity, way before people were thinking about DNA,” said Alexander Bradshaw, postdoctoral researcher at the U and lead author of the study. “That’s the beauty of it—no one has really sequenced type specimens at this scale, and now we get to produce molecular and genomic data to the gold standard of Psilocybe types for people to compare against.”

A trip through time

Previous studies identified the cluster of four core genes that produce psilocybin based on genomic analysis of three Psilocybe species. The species were closely related to each other, and all had matching gene patterns within the psilocybin-producing gene clusters. This study’s expanded genomics of 52 specimens of Psilocybe revealed a second distinct pattern.

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“This work represents a big step in the understanding of the evolutionary relationships in Psilocybe because it is the first to include a broad species sampling and is based on type specimens,” said Virginia Ramírez-Cruz, mycologist at the Universidad de Guadalajara and co-lead author of the study. “I am particularly grateful for the invitation to collaborate and be one of the leaders in this project.”

The authors found that 17 specimens had the original order, while 35 exhibited the new pattern.

“We’ve shown here that there’s been a lot of change in gene order over time, and that provides some new tools for biotechnology. If you’re looking for a way to express the genes to produce the psilocybin and related compounds, you no longer have to rely on only one set of gene sequences to do that. Now there’s tremendous diversity that scientists can look at for lots of different properties or efficiencies,” said Dentinger.

Dating of the group showed that an ancient split of the two gene cluster patterns occurred around 57 million years ago, which also corresponded to a shift in the ecology. The first psilocybin-producing mushrooms likely arose as a wood-decomposing group, then transitioned to soil after the split, with some species such as Psilocybe cubensis transiting to growing on herbivore dung. The ecological shift to dung appears to have occurred at least twice independently in their evolutionary history.

What does psilocybin do for mushrooms?

The authors hoped that psilocybin’s evolutionary history would clarify the most basic question—what does psilocybin do for mushrooms? The psilocybin-producing gene clusters likely have some benefit, but no one knows what it is.

The molecular structure of psilocybin mimics serotonin and binds tightly to serotonin receptors, especially at 5-HT_2A, a famous receptor onto which many psychedelic drugs bind. When a chemical binds to these receptors in mammals and similar ones in insects and arachnids, they produce unnatural and altered behaviors. Some have proposed that this altered mental state might be a direct deterrent to predation. It’s also possible that psilocybin functions as a laxative or induces vomiting to spread spores before they are fully digested. However, psilocybin mushrooms often occur infrequently in the wild, making it unlikely that animals could learn to recognize them. An alternative theory is that psilocybin is a chemical defense against insects. However, empirical studies are lacking, and the authors’ personal observations confirm that psilocybin-containing mushrooms regularly host healthy, thriving insect larvae.

The authors are preparing experiments to test an alternative theory that they call the Gastropod Hypothesis. The timing and divergence dates of Psilocybe coincide with the KPg boundary, the geological marker of the asteroid that threw Earth into a brutal, prolonged winter and killed 80% of all life. Two lifeforms that thrived during the darkness and decay were fungi and terrestrial gastropods. Evidence, including the fossil record, shows that gastropods had a massive diversification and proliferation just after the asteroid hit, and it’s known that terrestrial slugs are heavy predators of mushrooms. With the study’s molecular dating of Psilocybe to around 65 million years ago, it’s possible that psilocybin evolved as a slug deterrent. They hope that their feeding experiments will shed some light on their hypothesis.

In 2020, the authors set a goal to get a genome sequence for every Psilocybe type specimen. To date, they’ve generated genomes of 71 type specimens and continue to collaborate with collections around the world.

“It’s impossible to overstate the importance of collections for doing studies like this. We are standing on the shoulders of giants, who spent thousands of people-power hours to create these collections, so that I can write an email and request access to rare specimens, many of which have only ever been collected once, and may never be collected again,” said Bradshaw.

Other authors who contributed to the study include Ali Awan of Guy’s and St. Thomas’ NHS Trust, Giuliana Furci of the Fungi Foundation, and Laura Guzmán-Dávalos of the Universidad de Guadalajara. The research was funded by the National Science Foundation (DEB #2114785) and Fungi Perfecti LLC.

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There are over 200 species of psilocybin mushrooms in the world containing naturally occurring psychoactive compounds. Known by most as “magic mushrooms” these shrooms have a history of being utilized in spiritual and religious ceremonies for mind-altering experiences.

Together we'll explore the most popular psilocybin mushroom types, including Penis Envy, Liberty Caps, Golden Teachers, and more.

Each psilocybin mushroom species varies in the amount of psilocybin and psilocin it contains–and the experience it provides. Psilocybin levels can range from 0.1% to almost 2%, with an average of around 0.8%.

Psilocin is much more bioactive than psilocybin, which actually transforms into psilocin once ingested. The effects of psilocin are similar to those produced by mescaline and LSD and can last for several hours.

In recent years, psilocybin mushrooms have been gaining increased attention for their potential therapeutic benefits and potential to treat mental health disorders like depression, anxiety and PTSD

PSILOCYBIN MUSHROOM TYPES: TOP SPECIES TO KNOW

Here are some popular types of psilocybin mushrooms. While we include dosage guidelines for Psilocybe cubensis, there isn’t enough dedicated research on other strains to include that data for all of them.

1. Psilocybe Cubensis

Psilocybe cubensis is a powerful psychedelic mushroom that is one of the most widely studied psychoactive mushrooms, known for producing powerful hallucinations, altered states of consciousness, and spiritual experiences.

What makes Psilocybe cubensis so special is its multiple strains, like Penis Envy and Golden Teachers, that vary in color, shape, and potency. Here are some popular varieties:

Penis Envy Mushrooms

Penis envy mushrooms can be identified by their large and bulbous stem, similar in shape to a human penis. This strain tends to be more challenging to cultivate than other mushrooms and is also less tolerant to contamination.

Penis Envy is known to have high potency levels and is recommended for psychonauts with a good amount of experience.

Golden Teacher Mushrooms

Golden teacher mushrooms have long, curving stems and wide caps. They are a popular choice for growers because they are easy to cultivate at home and have a moderate level of potency to them. As a result consuming even half a gram of Golden Teacher does not usually yeild hallunications at that particular dosage. What does happen is an enhancement in your mood and mental state.

As always a high dose will yield stronger effects and trips.

Cambodian

Cambodian mushrooms have brown caps and small bodies. This strain grows in warmer conditions and has high potency levels. The trips from Cambodian mushrooms are less visual but bring about more creativity in a person.

2. Psilocybe Semilanceata (Liberty Caps)

Liberty Caps Psilocybin Mushroom

Psilocybe semilanceata, or Liberty Caps, is a well-known magic mushroom that can be easier to find in the wild. These mushrooms have long, thin stems and distinct, convex, bell-shaped caps, which is how they got their nickname.

Liberty Caps are in abundance in Europe, but they can also be found in North America, South Africa, Chile, Northern India, Australia, and New Zealand.

Liberty Caps are found in grassy areas, such as meadows and pastures, from late summer to early winter. They trhive in damp soil and cooler temperatures.

Liberty caps may contain up to 0.98 percent of psilocybin, .02 percent of psilocin, and .36 percent of baeocystin making these mushroom very potent.

3. Panaeolus Cyanescens (Wavy Caps)

P.cyanescens is a mushroom that feeds on decomposing material and foundd commonly on the West Coast of North America. They get their name from their large, caramel-colored caps, which have a wavy shape.

Psilocybe cyanescens mushrooms thrive in cold weather and is easier to grow them outside. These mushrooms can also be grown in gardens and will likely do best around wood chips. Wavy Caps have moderate strength, containing 0.85% psilocybin.

At high levels, users report experiences similar to those of taking DMT, such as spiritual encounters. Others have reported experiencing a body high, auditory and visual hallucinations, nausea, and euphoria.

4. Psilocybe Azurescens (Flying Saucer)

Psilocybe Azurescens, also known as “flying saucer” mushrooms because of their broad, UFO-shaped caps, are native to North America. They have “caramel-colored” caps and stems that are “twisted, cartilaginous, silky white fibrous tissue.” These mushrooms grow along coastal dunes close to rivers in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, including Oregon, Washington, California, and British Columbia.

Psilocybe azurescens are the most potent out of all the psilocybe species, containing the highest psilocybin content at 1.78%.

Consuming these mushrooms can lead to intense visual experiences, a heavy physical sensation, and profound changes to one’s perception of reality at moderate to high doses.

5. Psilocybe Mexicana

Psilocybe mexicana, often called the “Mexican liberty cap,” can range from a light yellow almost off-white to a dark brown or even a blue hue in certain areas. Since they have irregular shapes, sizes, and colors, it can be difficult to identify them based on their sclerotia alone.

Psilocybe Mexicana can vary and will change depending on how it’s consumed, such as the method of consumption and whether it is raw or dried. However, the average amount of psilocybin was reported to between 0.22 to 0.38 percent.

6. Psilocybe Caerulipes (Blue-Foot)

Known as the “forager’s delight,” or \"Blue-Foot\" are also extremely hard to find, Psilocybe caerulipes is a blue-footed magic mushroom spotted in the Northeast of the United States.

The most common appearance of this mushroom is blue, but it can also appear as a dark blue or black cap with a white stem.

Potency: In 2022 the National Library of Medicine conducted a study on mushrooms that contained psilocybin, and they discovered that Psilocybe caerulipes had between 0.2 and 0.6 percent of psilocybin and 0.05 to 0.3 percent of psilocin. Users have found a positive experience due to feeling connected to other people, nature, and the universe. Other senses and feelings also become stronger.

7. Psilocybe Allenii

Psilocybe allenii psilocybin mushroom
These mushrooms are known for their hallucinogenic effects and have been used for centuries by Native American cultures for spiritual and medicinal purposes. Psilocybe allenii can be seen along the western coast of the United States, from Washington to San Francisco and often appear in large groups. We still don’t know where this species originated.

The caps of Psilocybe allenii have a caramel-brown color when wet that shifts to a yellowish-straw color as they dry out.

Varieties: Psilocybe allenii cyclone

Potency: Psilocybe allenii may contain up to 1.84 percent of psilocybin, which is highly potent, and anywhere from .04 to 1.81 percent of psilocin, depending on their environment.

Experience: Depending on how much you can tolerate, you will experience mild symptoms, including brighter colors, hallucinations outside of your direct vision, and short-term visual changes. The walls, ceiling, and artwork might appear to glimmer or shake. Also, your pupils can dilate, and your hands will become cold and clammy.

8. Psilocybe Natalensis (Natal Super Strength)

Psilocybe natalensis also known as Natal Super Strength is a unique species of magic mushroom that grows in the Natal region of South Africa. These mushrooms contain high amounts of the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin.

Closely related to Psilocybe cubensis, Psilocybe natalensis is usually much more potent. Some reports suggest that Psilocybe natalensis is twice as potent and more resilient to mold than Psilocybe cubensis. Because of its high resistance to mold, it’s less likely to be corrupted when growing, making it simpler to manage.

The strength of all psilocybin mushrooms varies greatly, but some estimates suggest that, on average, natal super-strength mushrooms are 1.5 to 2 times stronger than P. cubensis.

Where Can You Find Psilocybin Mushrooms?

Psilocybin mushrooms are most commonly found in the wild in humid, warm, and moist environments, such as in wood chips, mulch, and the poop of grazing animals.

Psilocybin mushrooms can also grow in the grass, in cow pastures, as well as on decaying logs in forests. Quite simply they can be found almost anywhere to a certain extent and even in our shop.

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